Animal welfare science is an emerging field that seeks to answer questions raised by the keeping and use of animals, such as whether hens are frustrated when confined in cages, whether the psychological well-being of animals in laboratories can be maintained, and whether zoo animals are stressed by the transport required for international conservation Jun 27, · Letter: DWR should neither endorse nor promote animal cruelty FILE - In this June 11, file photo, a coyote watches from an enclosure as a cow walks past at the Millville Predator Research May 08, · Animal cruelty is like a disease, it just won’t stop, students I will now tell you all my last argument which is why animal cruelty should be abolished. Classmates imagine your eyes being blinded, your skin being burnt off of your bones, your hair being ripped off or
Animal Farm: 7 Commandments - A Research Guide
For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here. Citation: Ferdowsian HR, Beck N Ethical and Scientific Considerations Regarding Animal Testing and Research. PLoS ONE 6 9 : e Copyright: © Ferdowsian, Beck. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: The authors are grateful to the National Science Foundation grant SES and the Arcus Foundation grant for the financial support for the corresponding conference, Animals, Research, and Alternatives: Measuring Progress 50 Years Later. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: HRF and NB are employed by Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, which is a non-governmental organization which promotes higher ethical standards in research and alternatives to the use of animals in research, education, animal cruelty research paper, and training.
Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine is a nonprofit organization, and the authors adhered to PLoS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. These principles encouraged researchers to work to reduce the number of animals used in experiments to the minimum considered necessary, refine or limit the pain and distress to which animals are exposed, and replace the use of animals with non-animal alternatives when possible.
Despite the attention brought to this issue by Russell and Burch and since, the number of animals used in research and testing has continued to increase, raising serious ethical and scientific issues. This Overview provides a brief summary of the ethical and scientific considerations regarding the use of animals in research and testing, and accompanies a Collection entitled Animals, animal cruelty research paper, Research, and Alternatives: Measuring Progress 50 Years Laterwhich aims to spur ethical and scientific advancement.
One of the most influential attempts to examine and affect the use of animals in research can be traced back to, animal cruelty research paper, with the publication of The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique [1]. William Russell and Rex Burch published this seminal book in response to marked growth in medical and veterinary research and the concomitant increase in the numbers of animals used, animal cruelty research paper.
Despite the attention brought to this issue by Russell and Burch, the number of animals used in research and testing has continued to increase, animal cruelty research paper. Recent estimates suggest that at least million animals are used each year worldwide [2]. However, this is likely an underestimate, and it is impossible to accurately quantify the number of animals used in or for experimentation.
Full reporting of all animal use is animal cruelty research paper required or made public in most countries. Nevertheless, based on available information, it is clear that the number of animals used in research has not significantly declined over the past several decades. In addition, serious questions have been raised about the effectiveness of animal testing and research in predicting anticipated outcomes [5] — [13].
In Augustthe Georgetown University Kennedy Institute of Ethics, the Johns Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, the Institute for In Vitro Sciences, The George Washington University, and the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine jointly held a two day multi-disciplinary, international conference in Washington, DC, to address the scientific, legal, and political opportunities and challenges to implementing alternatives to animal research. This two-day symposium aimed to advance the study of the ethical and scientific issues surrounding the use of animals in testing and research, with particular emphasis on the adequacy of current protections and the promise and challenges of developing alternatives to the use of animals in basic research, pharmaceutical research and development, and regulatory toxicology.
Speakers who contributed to the conference reviewed and contributed new knowledge regarding the cognitive and affective capabilities animal cruelty research paper animals, revealed through ethology, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and related disciplines, animal cruelty research paper. Speakers also explored the dimensions of harm associated with animal research, touching on the ethical implications regarding the use of animals in research. Finally, several contributors presented the latest scientific advances in developing alternatives to the use of animals in pharmaceutical research and development and regulatory toxicity testing.
This Collection combines some papers that were written following this conference with an aim to highlight relevant progress and research. This Overview provides a brief summary of the ethical and scientific considerations regarding the use of animals in research and testing, some of which are highlighted in the accompanying Collection.
Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research [14][15].
Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical experiments on large numbers of prisoners by the Nazi German regime during World War II and the Tuskegee syphilis study.
These abuses served as the impetus for the establishment of the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research and the resulting Belmont Report [16] — [18]. Today, these guidelines provide a platform for the protection of human research subjects, including the principles of respect, beneficence, and justice, as well as special protections animal cruelty research paper vulnerable populations.
Laws to protect animals in research have also been established. The British Parliament passed the first set of protections for animals inwith the Cruelty to Animals Act [19]. Approximately ninety years later, the U. adopted regulations for animals used in research, with the passage of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act of [20]. Subsequent national and international laws and guidelines have provided basic protections, but there are some significant inconsistencies among current regulations [21].
For example, the U. In contrast, certain dogs and cats have received special attention and protections, animal cruelty research paper. Whereas the U. Animal Welfare Act excludes birds, rats and mice, the Animal cruelty research paper. guidelines overseeing research conducted with federal funding includes protections for all vertebrates [22][23].
While strides have been made in the protection of both human and animal research subjects, the nature of these protections is markedly different. Human research protections emphasize specific principles aimed at protecting the interests of individuals and populations, sometimes to the detriment of the scientific question. This differs significantly from animal research guidelines, where the animal cruelty research paper of the scientific question being researched commonly takes precedence over the interests of individual animals.
Although scientists and ethicists have published numerous articles relevant to the ethics of animal research, current animal research guidelines do not articulate the rationale for the central differences between human and animal research guidelines. Currently, the majority of guidelines operate on the presumption that animal research should proceed based on broad, perceived benefits to humans, animal cruelty research paper.
These guidelines are generally permissive of animal research independent of the costs to the individual animal as long as benefits seem achievable. Animal cruelty research paper concept of costs to individual animals can be further examined through the growing body of research on animal emotion and cognition. Studies published in the last few decades have dramatically increased our understanding of animal sentience, suggesting that animals' potential for experiencing harm is greater than has been appreciated and that current protections need to be reconsidered.
It is now widely acknowledged by scientists and ethicists that animals can experience pain and distress [25] — [29]. Potential causes of harm include invasive procedures, disease, and deprivation of basic physiological needs, animal cruelty research paper.
Other sources of harm for many animals include social deprivation and loss of the ability to fulfill natural behaviors, among other factors. Numerous studies have demonstrated that, even in response to gentle handling, animals can show marked changes in physiological and hormonal markers of stress [30], animal cruelty research paper.
Although pain and animal cruelty research paper are subjective experiences, studies from multiple disciplines provide objective evidence of animals' abilities to experience pain.
Animals demonstrate coordinated responses to pain and many emotional states that are similar to those exhibited by humans [25][26]. Animals share genetic, neuroanatomical, and physiological similarities with humans, and many animals express pain in ways similar to humans.
Animals also share similarities with humans in genetic, developmental, and environmental risk factors for psychopathology [25][26]. For example, fear operates in a less organized subcortical neural circuit than pain, and it has been described in a wide variety of species [31].
More complex markers of psychological distress have also been described in animals. Varying forms of depression have been repeatedly reported in animals, including nonhuman primates, dogs, pigs, cats, birds and rodents, among others animal cruelty research paper — [34].
Anxiety disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, have been described in animals including chimpanzees and elephants [35][36][37]. In addition to the capacity to experience physical and psychological pain or distress, animals also display many language-like abilities, complex problem-solving skills, tool related cognition and pleasure-seeking, with empathy and self-awareness also suggested by some research.
Play behavior, an indicator of pleasure, is widespread in mammals, and has also been described in birds [45][46]. Behavior suggestive of play has been observed in other taxa, animal cruelty research paper, including reptiles, fishes and cephalopods [43]. Self-awareness, assessed through mirror self-recognition, has been reported for chimpanzees and other great apes, magpies, and some cetaceans. More recent studies have shown that crows are capable of creating and using tools that require access to episodic-like memory formation and retrieval [47].
These findings suggest that crows and related species display evidence of causal reasoning, animal cruelty research paper, flexible learning strategies, imagination and prospection, similar to findings in great apes. These findings also challenge our animal cruelty research paper about species similarities and differences and their relevance in solving ethical dilemmas regarding the use of animals in research. In the last decade, concerns have mounted about how relevant animal experiments are to human health outcomes.
Several papers have examined the concordance between animal and human data, demonstrating that findings in animals were not reliably replicated in human clinical research [5] — [13]. Recent systematic reviews of treatments for various clinical conditions demonstrated that animal studies have been poorly predictive of human outcomes in the fields of neurology and vascular disease, among others [7][48]. These reviews have raised questions about whether human diseases inflicted upon animals sufficiently mimic the disease processes and treatment responses seen in humans.
The value of animal use for predicting human outcomes has also been questioned in the regulatory toxicology field, which relies on a codified set of highly standardized animal experiments for assessing various types of toxicity. Despite serious shortcomings for many of these assays, most of which are 50 to 60 years old, the field has been slow to adopt newer methods. The year marked a turning point in the toxicology field, with publication of a landmark report by the U.
National Research Council NRChighlighting the need to embrace in vitro and computational methods in order to obtain data that more accurately predicts toxic effects animal cruelty research paper humans, animal cruelty research paper. Environmental Protection Agency, animal cruelty research paper, partially due to the recognition of weaknesses in existing approaches to toxicity testing [49].
The NRC vision calls for a shift away from animal use in chemical testing toward computational models and high-throughput and high-content in vitro methods. The report emphasized that these methods can provide more predictive data, more quickly and affordably than traditional in vivo methods. Subsequently published articles address the implementation of this vision for improving the current system of chemical testing and assessment [50][51], animal cruelty research paper.
While a sea change is underway in regulatory toxicology, there has been much less dialogue surrounding the replacement of animals in research, despite the fact that far more animals are used in basic and applied research than in regulatory toxicology. The use of animals in research is inherently more difficult to approach systematically because research questions are much more diverse and less proscribed than in regulatory toxicology [52].
Because researchers often use very specialized assays and systems to address their hypotheses, replacement of animals in this area is a more individualized endeavour. Researchers animal cruelty research paper oversight boards have to evaluate the relevance of the research question and whether the tools of modern molecular and cell biology, genetics, animal cruelty research paper, biochemistry, and computational biology can be used in lieu of animals. While none of these tools on their own are capable of replicating a whole organism, they do provide a mechanistic understanding of molecular events.
It is important for researchers and reviewers to assess differences in the clinical presentation and manifestation of diseases among species, as well as anatomical, physiological, and genetic differences that could impact the transferability of findings. Another relevant consideration is how well animal data can mirror relevant epigenetic effects and human genetic variability. Examples of existing and promising non-animal methods have been reviewed recently by Langley and colleagues, who highlighted advances in fields including orthodontics, neurology, immunology, infectious diseases, animal cruelty research paper, pulmonology, endocrine and metabolism, cardiology, and obstetrics [52].
Many researchers have also begun to rely solely on human data and cell and tissue assays animal cruelty research paper address large areas of therapeutic research and development. In the area of vaccine testing and development, a surrogate in-vitro human immune system has been developed to help predict an individual's immune response to a particular drug or vaccine [53][54].
This system includes a blood-donor base of hundreds of individuals from diverse populations and offers many benefits, including predictive high-throughput in vitro immunology to assess novel drug and vaccine candidates, measurement of immune responses in diverse human populations, faster cycle time for discovery, better selection of drug candidates for clinical evaluation, and reductions in the time and costs to bring drugs and vaccines to the market.
In the case of vaccines, this system can be used at every stage, including in vitro disease models, antigen selection and adjuvant effects, safety testing, clinical trials, manufacturing, and potency assays. When compared with data from animal experiments, this system has produced more accurate pre-clinical data.
The examples above illustrate animal cruelty research paper innovative applications of technology can generate data more meaningful to humans, and reduce or replace animal use, animal cruelty research paper, but advances in medicine may also require novel approaches to setting research priorities. The Dr. Susan Love Research Foundation, which focuses on eradicating breast cancer, has challenged research scientists to move from animal research to breast cancer prevention research involving women.
If researchers could better understand the factors that increase the risk for breast cancer, as well as methods for effective prevention, fewer women would require treatment for breast cancer. Whereas animal research is largely investigator-initiated, this model tries to address the questions that are central to the care of women at risk for or affected by breast cancer. This approach has facilitated the recruitment of women for studies including a national project funded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Environmental Health to examine how environment and genes affect breast cancer risk.
Animal abuse/cruelty speech
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A Research Guide research paper examples on «Animal Farm: 7 Commandments» and other topics. You can find best Paper Examples on Literature here! When the hens oppose Napoleon’s order to sell their eggs to Whymper, they are met with such cruelty from Napoleon’s dogs that it Researchers from the Yale School of Medicine and several British universities published a paper in The BMJ titled “Where Is the Evidence That Animal Research Benefits Humans?” The researchers systematically examined studies that used animals and concluded that little evidence exists to support the idea that experimentation on animals has benefited humans May 08, · Animal cruelty is like a disease, it just won’t stop, students I will now tell you all my last argument which is why animal cruelty should be abolished. Classmates imagine your eyes being blinded, your skin being burnt off of your bones, your hair being ripped off or
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