Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose
Typhoid fever - Wikipedia
Typhoid feveralso known as typhoidis a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. enterica Typhi only infects and replicates within humans.
Typhoid fever can feasibly be eradicated dissertation paper yersiniosis if advances in its diagnosis, prevention and treatment are financially supported by governments and philanthropists and if the healthcare infrastructure in regions with endemic Typhoid fever are improved. The cause is the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi growing in the intestinespeyers patchesmesenteric lymph nodesspleenlivergallbladderbone marrow and blood. In Typhus is a different disease.
The name typhoid means "resembling typhus". Classically, the progression of untreated typhoid fever is divided into three distinct stages, each lasting about a week. Over the course of these stages, the patient becomes exhausted and emaciated. The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi, dissertation paper yersiniosis. Based on MLST dissertation paper yersiniosis scheme, the two main sequence types of the S.
Typhi are ST1 and ST2, which are currently widespread globally. This scheme re-classified the nomenclature of H58 to genotype 4. Unlike other strains of Salmonellano animal carriers of typhoid are known.
enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is spread through the fecal-oral route from individuals who are currently infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the bacteria. Diagnosis is made by any bloodbone marrowor stool cultures and with the Widal dissertation paper yersiniosis demonstration of antibodies against Salmonella antigens O-somatic and H-flagellar.
In epidemics and less wealthy countries, after excluding malariadysenteryor pneumoniaa therapeutic trial time with chloramphenicol is generally undertaken while awaiting the results of dissertation paper yersiniosis Widal test and cultures of the blood and stool.
Widal test is used to identify specific antibodies in serum of people with typhoid by using antigen-antibody interactions.
In this test, the serum is mixed with a dead bacterial suspension of salmonella having specific antigens on it. If the patient's serum is carrying antibodies against those antigens then they get attached to them forming clumping which indicated the positivity of the test. If clumping does not occur then the test is negative. The Widal test is time-consuming and prone to significant false positive results.
The dissertation paper yersiniosis may also be falsely negative in the early course of illness. However, unlike the Typhidot test, the Widal test quantifies the specimen with titres, dissertation paper yersiniosis. Rapid diagnostic tests such as Tubex, Typhidot, dissertation paper yersiniosis, and Test-It have shown moderate diagnostic accuracy. The test is based on the presence of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to a specific 50 Kd OMP antigen.
This test is carried out on a cellulose nitrate membrane where a specific S. typhi outer membrane protein is attached as fixed test lines, dissertation paper yersiniosis. It separately identifies IgM and IgG antibodies. IgM shows recent infection whereas IgG signifies remote infection.
The sample pad of this kit contains colloidal gold-anti-human IgG or gold-anti-human IgM. If the sample contains IgG and IgM antibodies against those antigens then they will react and get turned dissertation paper yersiniosis red color. This complex will continue to move forward and the IgG and IgM antibodies will get attached to the first test line where IgG and IgM antigens are present giving a pink-purplish colored band.
Dissertation paper yersiniosis complex will continue to move further and reach the control line which consists of rabbit anti-mouse antibody which bends the mouse anti-human IgG or IgM antibodies. The main purpose of the control line is to indicate a proper migration and reagent color.
The typhidot test becomes positive within 2—3 days of infection. Two colored bands indicate a positive test. Single-band of control line indicates a negative test. Single-band of first fixed line or no bands at all indicates invalid tests. The most important limitation of this test is that it is not quantitative and the result is only positive or negative, dissertation paper yersiniosis.
Tubex test contains two types of particles brown magnetic particles coated with antigen and blue indicator particles coated with O9 antibody. During the test, if antibodies are present in the serum then they will get attached to the brown magnetic particles and settle down at the base and the blue indicator particles remain up in the solution giving a blue color that indicates positivity of the test.
If the serum does not have an antibody in it then the blue particle gets attached to the brown particles and settled down at the bottom giving no color to the solution which means the test is negative and they do not have typhoid. Sanitation and hygiene are important to prevent typhoid. It can only spread in environments where human feces are able to come into contact dissertation paper yersiniosis food or drinking water.
Careful food preparation and washing of hands are crucial to prevent typhoid. Industrialization, and in particular, the invention of the automobile, contributed greatly to the elimination of typhoid fever, as it eliminated the public-health hazards associated with having horse manure in public streets, which dissertation paper yersiniosis to large number of flies, [30] which are known as vectors of many pathogens, dissertation paper yersiniosis, including Salmonella spp.
Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use for the prevention of typhoid: [10] the live, dissertation paper yersiniosis, oral Ty21a vaccine sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline.
Both are efficacious and recommended for travellers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for the injectable form. To help decrease rates of typhoid fever in developing nations, the World Health Organization WHO endorsed the use of a vaccination program starting in Vaccinations have proven to be a great way at controlling outbreaks in high incidence areas.
Just as important, it is also very cost-effective. Because the price is low, poverty-stricken communities are more willing to take advantage of the vaccinations. Since the s, two typhoid fever vaccines have been recommended by the WHO. The ViPS vaccine is given via injection, while the Ty21a is taken through capsules. The dissertation paper yersiniosis different vaccines have been proven as a safe and effective treatment for epidemic disease control in multiple regions.
A version combined with hepatitis A is also dissertation paper yersiniosis. The rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the s provided a simple way to prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general. Where resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin. Typhoid fever, when properly treated, is not fatal in most cases. Antibiotics, such as ampicillinchloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazoleamoxicillinand ciprofloxacin, have been commonly used to treat typhoid fever.
Without treatment, dissertation paper yersiniosis, some patients develop sustained fever, bradycardia, hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal symptoms, and occasionally, dissertation paper yersiniosis, pneumonia. The highest case fatality rates dissertation paper yersiniosis reported in children under 4 years. Surgery is usually indicated if intestinal perforation occurs. For surgical treatment, most surgeons prefer simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum.
Small-bowel resection is indicated for patients with multiple perforations. If antibiotic treatment fails to eradicate the hepatobiliary carriage, the gallbladder should be resected. Cholecystectomy is sometimes successful, especially in patients with gallstonesbut is not always successful in eradicating the carrier state dissertation paper yersiniosis of persisting hepatic infection.
As resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and streptomycin is now common, these agents are no longer used as first—line treatment of typhoid fever. Ciprofloxacin resistance is an increasing problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Many centres are shifting from using ciprofloxacin as the first line for treating suspected typhoid originating in South America, India, Pakistan, dissertation paper yersiniosis, Bangladesh, Thailand, dissertation paper yersiniosis, or Vietnam.
For these people, the recommended first-line treatment is ceftriaxone. Also, azithromycin has been suggested to be better at treating resistant typhoid in populations than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone, dissertation paper yersiniosis. A separate problem exists with laboratory testing for reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin; current recommendations are that isolates should be tested simultaneously against ciprofloxacin CIP and against nalidixic acid NALand that isolates that are sensitive to both CIP and NAL should be reported as "sensitive to ciprofloxacin", dissertation paper yersiniosis, but that isolates testing sensitive to CIP but not to NAL should be reported as "reduced sensitivity to ciprofloxacin".
Intyphoid fever caused an estimated enterica serovar Typhi is human-restricted, these chronic carriers become the crucial reservoir, which can persist for decades for further spread of the disease, further complicating the identification and treatment of the disease. enterica serovar Typhi associated with a large outbreak and a carrier at the genome level provides new insights into the pathogenesis of the pathogen.
In industrialized nations, water sanitation and food handling improvements have reduced the number of cases. These areas have a lack of access to clean water, proper sanitation systems, and proper health-care facilities, dissertation paper yersiniosis. For these areas, such access to basic public-health needs is not in the near future.
In — an outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo resulted in more than 42, cases and deaths. The plague of Athensduring the Peloponnesian Warwas most likely an outbreak of typhoid fever. This massive influx of humans into a concentrated space overwhelmed the water supply and waste infrastructure, likely leading to unsanitary conditions as fresh water become harder to obtain and waste became more difficult to collect and remove beyond the city walls, dissertation paper yersiniosis.
revealed that fragments of DNA similar to modern day S. Typhi DNA were detected, whereas Yersinia pestis plagueRickettsia prowazekii typhusMycobacterium tuberculosiscowpox virusand Bartonella henselae were not detected in any of the remains tested. It is possible that the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar suffered from either a liver abscess or typhoid fever, and survived by using ice baths and cold compresses as a means of treatment for his fever.
The French doctors Pierre-Fidele Bretonneau and Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis are credited with describing typhoid fever as a dissertation paper yersiniosis disease, unique from typhus, dissertation paper yersiniosis. Both doctors performed autopsies on individuals who died in Paris due to fever - and indicated that many had lesions on the Peyer's patches which correlated with distinct symptoms before death.
However, in France only typhoid was present circulating in the population. In William Budd learned of an epidemic of typhoid fever in Clifton, and identified that all 13 of 34 residents who had contracted the disease drew their drinking water from the same well. Budd later became health officer of Bristol and ensured a clean water supply, and documented further evidence of typhoid as a water-borne illness throughout his career, dissertation paper yersiniosis.
Polish scientist Tadeusz Browicz described a short bacillus in the organs and feces of typhoid victims in In Aprilthree months prior to Eberth's publication, Edwin Klebs described short and filamentous bacilli in the Peyer's patches in typhoid victims, dissertation paper yersiniosis. InKarl Joseph Eberth described a bacillus that he suspected was the cause of typhoid.
Most developed countries had declining rates of typhoid fever throughout the first half of the 20th century due to vaccinations and advances in public sanitation and hygiene, dissertation paper yersiniosis.
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, time: 2:34Typhoid fever - Wikipedia
Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose
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